Asian cuisine refers to the culinary traditions of numerous countries, regions, and peoples in Asia. Asian cuisine includes a broad variety of habits, practices, norms, and customs pertaining to the preparation and consumption of food. The Asian continent is the largest in terms of land and population, resulting in diverse food. Asian cuisine reflects the diversity of a multitude of cultures, histories, and ingredients, which contribute to particular practices and flavors. Each region of Asia has its own culinary traditions, from Uzbekistan’s plov to Japan’s sushi, from India’s curries to Russia’s borscht. However, the ingredients and techniques that define a given culinary tradition are often shared and modified across national boundaries. There is in fact more that unites the cuisines of Asia than divides them (Tarulevicz, 2012). The introduction discusses what is often meant by the term “Asian cuisine,” examining some of the culinary arts and traditions that are included in this designation. The variety found in Asian cuisine is not only in taste but also in the methods of preparation employed throughout the continent. These techniques are often learned from family, widely practiced in restaurants, and then disseminated through cookbooks. The difference between art and craft, as framed in this discussion, is significant. Food and culture are infinitely intertwined; each influences, reflects, and shapes the other. What is culture if not food, dress, music, and language? Food, in turn, is laden with myriad cultural meanings. But culture is not stagnant. The second chapter demonstrates the evolution of Asian cuisine through trade, migration, and the mixing of ingredients and techniques. Still, local context is crucial, as the same dish can take on different meanings and practices depending on time and place. This discussion on food and culture is fundamental and necessary groundwork for the more detailed explorations that follow. Finally, this themed issue food studies in Asia brings together the work of scholars from a variety of disciplines, focusing on the culinary arts and traditions of China, India, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, the Philippines, and Taiwan.
Diversity and Influences
Asia is a vast continent with 49 countries, each with rich diversity. There are about 4.5 billion people in Asia, accounting for 60% of the world’s population. Asian cuisine is very popular in the world and many Asian food establishments can be seen in the Middle East or the West. Moreover, Asian food has different influences. Asian food differs from one country, region, or locality to another. Many factors shape a food culture or culinary tradition. These include geographical features, historical happenings, local food ingredients, and cultural practices. All these factors work together to shape the uniqueness of the Asian culinary tradition (Tarulevicz, 2012).
Asia is the origin of many foods, such as rice, noodles, ginger, garlic, orange, tea, turmeric, and many more. The early arrival of agriculture in Asia shaped its food history. The diversity in climate and topography also formed different food and cooking practices. The sea routes and the land routes contributed to the trade of foods and spices. There were also colonial influences and missionary activities that changed food habits and culinary practices. In more recent times, globalization brought foods and culinary practices from one part of the world to another. Nevertheless, Asian cuisine remains very diverse. Asian cooking methods and food preparations are closely associated with local ingredients and the local climate. For example, grilling and barbecuing are common in tropical regions where meat storage is difficult, while boiling became popular in colder climates. Asian countries are also home to many festivals, ceremonies, and rituals that reflect deeply rooted food traditions. For example, during the New Year celebration, Chinese people eat fish, which has the same pronunciation as surplus in Chinese, implying a wish for abundance in the coming year. The diversity and uniqueness of Asian cuisine can be found throughout Asia in countries such as China, India, Japan, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, and the Philippines. A basic understanding of these diversities is important before engaging in Asian cooking.
Key Ingredients in Asian Cooking
Asian cooking is generally thought to be complicated and demanding, but at its heart is simplicity, with only a few key ingredients forming the baseline of dishes. Understanding these ingredients goes a long way in comprehending the culinary traditions of the vast region of Asia. The backbone of these cooking techniques is the key ingredients put together in a dish. Staple foods form the basis of Asian diets, and most country’s dishes can be characterized by staple foods such as rice, noodles, and various kinds of soy products. These essentials are incredibly versatile and have been transformed into numerous variations of dishes. Essential key ingredients which made one country’s cuisine stand apart from the others are often unfamiliar to outsiders. It is local produce that makes a dish distinctive and gives it a character. Asian cooking relies heavily on fermented ingredients and their condiments. These items are intricately linked with the culinary traditions of Asia. Fermented foods and condiments are incorporated to enhance flavor, and they take an integral place in the gastronomy of Asia. Dishes cooked with raw materials are supposed to be transformed, and this transformative nature of cooking is often contemplated in Asian traditions. Ingredient availability is closely tied to the climate, geography and agriculture of the region, and it can define cultural practices connected to its food. On the outside, Asian cooking could be wondrous, intricate and delicate, but inside, it is simple. Putting the ingredients together is the beginning of understanding the art of Asian cooking. With the key ingredients presented, the readers are prepared to take the next step in exploring the cooking techniques and methods that transform these ingredients (Tarulevicz, 2012).
Herbs and Spices
Herbs and spices are perhaps the most vital element of Asian cuisine, for without them there would be no Asian food. It is the herbs and spices that provide the singular and exotic flavours, the intriguing aromas, and bright colours — the hallmark of many Asian dishes. Each Asian region has its own unique constellation of herbs and spices that has contributed to the crafting of its dishes and the evolution of its culinary identity. Some of these flavouring agents are used fresh, while others are dried or preserved (Duffell, 2018). Popular fresh flavouring herbs include coriander, mint, pandanus leaves, lemongrass, basil, and curry leaves, while dried spices commonly used include cinnamon, cloves, star anise, nutmeg, cardamom, cumin, fennel, turmeric, and chillies. The cultural relevance of these herbs and spices is woven into the culinary tapestry of Asia and is very much a part of its everyday life, serving as a source of flavouring, fragrance, and even comfort. In preparing food, these flavouring agents are often intricately combined with other key ingredients such as meat, seafood, or vegetables, and cooked using different techniques to enhance the complexity of Asian cooking. Herbs and spices also play an important role in the traditional culinary practices of various Asian ethnic groups as a means to promote health and well-being. Many Asian cooking techniques revolve around the art of flavouring and involve a range of aromatic herbs and spices that are generally believed to possess medicinal properties. Fried rice, for instance, is usually flavoured with shallots and garlic, both believed to warm the body, while fried fish served with spicy sambal is thought to prevent coldness, and hence considered an ideal accompaniment to consume with cooled dishes. Nonetheless, the layered roles of herbs and spices in Asian cooking transcend the culinary realm, revealing their multifaceted uses as comfort, care, and seasoning. The traditional use of herbs and spices in the food culture of Asian ethnic groups has undergone a metamorphosis in the passage of time. Beyond seasoning, herbs and spices are subjected to a range of processing techniques, including grinding, pounding, and infusing, which help liberate their volatile compounds and maximise flavour extraction. The continued use of these techniques is important in the dissemination of culinary heritage. Globalisation has informed the availability and use of herbs and spices. The international trade of spices which flourished sometime between the 15th and 17th centuries paved the way for the European discovery of Asian lands, redesigned the capacity of nations, and redefined culinary practices, thus irrevocably altering and reshaping the world as it is known today. The commodification of herbs and spices also propelled the expansion of their availability, broadening accessibility that was once the privilege of a few.
Cooking Techniques in Asian Cuisine
Asian cuisine is renowned for its exquisite flavors, but equally important are the cooking techniques. Often overlooked in favor of ingredients and seasoning, technique is where Asian cooking shines. Steaming, boiling, braising, roasting, grilling, and deep-frying are some of the cooking methods that form the basis of many traditional dishes in China and other Asian countries. Though these techniques are simple in concept, cooking with skill can produce distinctive textures and flavors. Asian cuisine places great importance on cooking techniques, which often impart special qualities to food materials. Seemingly similar ingredients can yield different results depending on the treatment they receive. Moreover, each cooking method is suited to particular ingredients, as temperature, time, and water have a specific effect on food substances. Therefore, care must be taken to select the right technique for each kind of material (Rowlands and Q. Fuller, 2012).
Asian approaches to cooking are examined here, noting the diversity within a technique across cultures. For example, parboiling and precooking are popular in the West, while in Asia braising is widely used. Techniques can also reflect the culture and resources of an area. In a comparatively dry and cold place, grilled and roasted food is preferred, while in a wet region, steaming and boiling are common. In addition to taste, cooking techniques can enhance the nutritional value of food. Frying, for example, lowers the digestibility of starch but increases the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins. Accumulation of practice has led to the selection of the healthiest methods in Asian food traditions. The subsequent subsection will look at select techniques in greater detail.
Stir-frying
Stir-frying is an iconic cooking technique of Asian cuisine, with origins dating back to the Han Dynasty. As the technique migrated into associated territories, it adapted to local ingredients and customs. For example, Vietnamese cuisine incorporated Asian stir-fry, but tempered it with fish sauce, creating a distinctive flavor profile. Nonetheless, the signature rapid high-heat cooking remained, providing a preparation method for a variety of meats and vegetables. It is quick by design. The technique utilizes high heat to cook ingredients rapidly, usually for less than five minutes, making it the marionette of Chinese cooking—quickly manipulating ingredients in oil while dancing to the flame’s control. The quick cooking time means that nutrients and flavors are preserved rather than dissipated into the cooking medium. It is also the most emblematic Asian cooking technique because of its versatility. Ingredients can be cut and cooked in myriad shapes, allowing a wide range of flavor profiles and dishes. In terms of Asian culture, stir-frying is unique because it truly spans the spectrum of cuisine. With simple adaptations to ingredients and flavors, Asian stir-frying techniques can cook dishes from Mongolia, India, Japan, and Thailand alongside Chinese ingredients.
This section focuses on Asian stir-fry as a cooking technique, exploring the method’s cultural significance and how its practical applications manifest in home cooking. The process of stir-frying is broken down and discussed, from equipment like woks to the importance of ingredient shape and skill in execution, addressing why some cannot replicate what they have eaten in restaurants or the homes of natives. It focuses primarily on Cantonese stir-fry because its influence spans the genre. It is also the most refined, like French cooking perfection. The focus is not on history but using Cantonese cooking as a lens into Asian cuisine so that other techniques do not go unnoticed. Highlighting and explaining one essential technique exemplifies the essence of this cuisine. At its most basic, stir-frying is cooking ingredients over high heat with oil and occasionally aromatics. Considering the heat used, three levels of cooking oil are employed: under a blue flame, with blue heat, and over high heat. Achieving each level, especially high heat, distinguishes the inexperienced from the experienced. Blue flames combust gas completely, producing a hotter and cleaner flame. Cantonese cooking and stir-frying are usually performed over gas flames, holding and guiding the flame like a baton. Properly controlled heat is essential in wok cooking because it forms the foundation for developing flavors and achieving the desired texture in ingredients. Too little heat means ingredients stew in their juices or oil instead of cooking, while too much turns them into carbon. It also means that high-heat techniques cannot be performed, while too much moisture draws out the ingredient’s juices and couldn’t create emulsions, a skill largely absent in Asian cooking.
Regional Variations in Asian Cuisine
The cuisine of Asia is as complex and varied as the continent itself. Asian cuisine can represent a thousand different things to a thousand different people. Each country in Asia has its own unique influences: those of other countries, trade routes, religion, wars and colonization, and geographical features. Even though Asian cuisine is vast, it still contains a number of regional variations that reflect culinary habits based on geography. The food traditions and preparation methods of Southeast and East Asia, for example, differ from those of South Asia and the Asian countries bordering the Indian ocean (Tarulevicz, 2012). Likewise, the culinary landscape of Asia is transformed by local ingredients, which create uniquely flavored dishes and specific ways of preparation. Temperature, climate, agriculture, and access to certain resources also play a vital role in how and what people cook. This is how cooking styles become regionalized, and cooking practices become local and unique. Asian cuisine is so extensive and varied that it is difficult even to summarize a range of its characteristics. Nevertheless, it is essential to highlight food traditions from various parts of Asia and to offer a glimpse of the way some of them have been shaped. Because of its complexity, a number of different aspects can be used to examine Asian food. But above all, it is important to remember that food is not just a reflection of one’s culture; it is culture itself. Food is at once habit, tradition, innovation, ritual, and performance. It can be collected, codified, prescribed, and contested. It is also something that can be traveled with or transported—carefully packed in tiffin carriers, baskets, or thermoses—or relocated in vending stalls, restaurants, or homes. With the increase of trade, movement, and diaspora, it shapes and reshapes identities locally, nationally, and transnationally. And as identities are multilayered and constantly shifting, so too are Asian foodways—their preparation, performance, and politics. Because of globalization, the widespread availability of Asian food restaurants outside of Asia, or the more extensive portrayal of Asian food on television, it is easy to overlook the complexities of food in Asia itself. Having shaped and transported Asian food to the West would offer a very different perspective from that of an Asian locale. However, food in relation to local identity—in its cultural, social, political, and emotional manifestations—is what is usually contested and difficult to explain. Although Asian food is increasingly embedded in the global economy, it is still experienced locally. Food expresses national identity; therefore, it can become a source of anxiety as it links ethnicity, territory, colonialism, and cultural significance. Countries like Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, China, and the Philippines, or Asian provinces within a nation-state, for example, would see food as a symbol of nation, something to celebrate, contest, and protect at all costs.
Chinese Cuisine
Chinese cuisine is an important part of Chinese culture. Chinese culinary styles vary greatly across different regions and among different ethnic groups. There are eight major culinary traditions in China: Cantonese, Hebei, Henan, Shandong, Sichuan, Fujian, Hunan, and Zhejiang. Each tradition is different due to the differences in geography, climate, history, ingredients and local population (Pu et al., 2019).
Rice and wheat are the two major staples in China. China is the world’s largest producer of rice. Rice is predominantly eaten by Southern Chinese, while wheat in the form of noodles and dumplings is the staple of Northern Chinese. Other ingredients widely used in Chinese cooking include soy sauce, tea and various mushrooms. Chinese dishes can be categorized as stir-fried, deep-fried, braised, steamed, boiled, roasted, marinated or pickled. The cooking method often characterizes the dish’s place of origin.
Balance is an important concept in Chinese cooking. Dishes are meticulously prepared to create a balance in flavor, texture, and visual aesthetics. For instance, both gently cooked and crispy ingredients may be used in the same dish to create a contrast in texture. To enhance the visual appeal, differently colored ingredients are combined. In a fully-developed dish, flavors, colors, shapes and cooking techniques all combine in harmony. Chinese culinary tradition emphasizes the importance of artistry in food preparation and presentation.
Historically, the Chinese culinary tradition progressed through the establishment of various “schools”. Each school’s style is characterized by a combination of unique ingredients, techniques and approaches to food preparation and presentation. The eight major culinary traditions correspond to eight elites of Chinese culinary schools, and each adds uniqueness and complexity to Chinese cuisine as a whole. A more contemporary approach to culinary schools involves the significance of historical factors, such as migration, trade, war and diplomacy. Routes of information transfer had a great impact on culinary progress.
Modern Innovations and Fusion Cuisine
Culinary arts, like other forms of art, can be imbued with modernity while preserving their essence. Asian cuisine, with its rich heritage and diverse traditions, gracefully embraces modernity without losing its soul. As a globalized society, it is important to understand the advancements and innovations occurring in Asian culinary arts at larger communal levels as well as in smaller individual settings. In addressing the impact of modernity, globalization and culinary creativity are often discussed in reference to fusion cuisine. While gastronomic fusions of “East Meets West” or “Asian Inspired” dishes certainly demonstrate the ability of chefs and home cooks to blend traditional Asian culinary elements with global influences, there is also a subtler infusion that transforms modern day Asian cuisine to a new level, exciting yet comforting, exotic yet familiar (Tarulevicz, 2012). It is the hope of the Asian Culinary Forum, as a platform for bringing together food scholars, chefs, and culinary practitioners, to promote greater appreciation and consideration of the contemporary culinary art form as a valid experiential genre of art in its own right, publicizing a wider discourse of the Asian culinary arts in the modern era.
The modern world of technology and media has globally homogenized food trends and made it easy to explore different flavors on a global level. But, where is the balance to be found between preserving the traditional aspect of it while embracing new innovations? As culinary art forms, the Asian culinary arts have an enormous breadth, depth, and sophistication in their traditional practices, which are still actively and passionately performed. But like everything else, tradition needs to evolve in order to remain relevant in modern times. Taste, as the experiential foundation of food arts, is constantly changing in response to varying consumer needs, such as health and dietary considerations, age groups, lifestyle adjustments and choices, socio-economic influences and statuses, cultural and social observations, as well as trends and fashions. But mostly importantly, it is through food that the celebration of cultural diversity and the coalescing of disparate social classes happen. Although globalization brings multi-cultural interactions—a bridging across ethnic barriers through food that brings the comforts of familiarity and homeliness—a different kind of cultural isolationism is also propagated by the posturing of over and above distinction. Modern cuisine tends to reflect the inclusivity of a couple great empires expanded through colonies, trade and exploration, blended with the ideological coalescing and domination of nations by capitalism and industry. Food as arts can express nation’s triumphs and embarrassments, glories and anxieties, poetries and violences. Asian culinary arts in the modern world nurture its cultural heritage while addressing the pressures and challenges of modern society.